Family, School, and Nation: What Shapes Filipino College Students’ Mental Health After Lockdown?
Article information
Cleofas, J. V. (2024). Family, friends, school and nation: Socio‐ecological determinants of mental health among Filipino college students post‐lockdown. International Social Science Journal, 74(252), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/issj.12459
What this study is about
After two years of COVID-19 community quarantine, Filipino college students returned to campuses carrying the effects of prolonged lockdown, online learning, family confinement, social isolation, and uncertainty. This study asks: What social factors shaped students’ mental health after lockdown?
Instead of looking only at individual stress, the study used a socio-ecological approach. This means it examined mental health across several layers of students’ lives:
- the individual level, such as age, sex assigned at birth, and SOGI;
- the family, friend, and school level;
- the national level, such as national resilience and trust in public institutions; and
- the time level, measured through changes in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022.
The study also used a bidimensional mental health model, which treats mental health as two related but distinct dimensions: mental well-being and psychological distress. In simple terms, a person can have positive mental health resources while still experiencing distress. Mental health is not only the absence of symptoms. It is also the presence of coping, connection, optimism, and functioning.
What the researcher did
This was a cross-sectional online survey involving 1,204 undergraduate students aged 18–24 enrolled in higher education institutions in the National Capital Region. Data were collected from August to September 2022, during the period when Philippine campuses were reopening after prolonged remote learning.
The study measured:
- mental well-being using the Short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale;
- psychological distress using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale;
- family and friend support using communal mastery scales;
- school community through quality of relationships, connectedness, and respect for diversity;
- national resilience through identification with country, social solidarity/social justice, and trust in public institutions; and
- change in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022.
The framework in Figure 1 on page 7 shows how these layers—individual, micro/mesosystem, exo/macrosystem, and chronosystem—were connected to bidimensional mental health.
What the study found
1) Students showed moderate mental well-being but high psychological distress
The students reported moderate mental well-being, but their average psychological distress score was high enough to suggest possible severe distress. This is a key finding: after lockdown, students were not simply “okay” because campuses reopened. Many may have regained some life satisfaction while still carrying serious distress.
This supports the idea that post-lockdown recovery is uneven. Reopening schools does not automatically repair the psychological effects of long confinement and disrupted learning.
2) Female and LGBTQ+ students had poorer mental health outcomes
Female students reported higher psychological distress than male students. LGBTQ+ students also reported lower mental well-being and higher psychological distress compared with cisheterosexual students.
This suggests that student mental health support should not be one-size-fits-all. Gender and sexuality matter because students experience family life, school life, safety, discrimination, belonging, and social expectations differently.
3) Family support was one of the strongest predictors
Family support, measured as mastery-family, predicted both better mental well-being and lower psychological distress. In plain language: students who felt supported by their families tended to feel mentally better and less distressed.
This is especially important in the Philippines, where many college students continue living with or depending on family while studying. Family is not just background context. It remains a central mental health environment.
4) Friends mattered less than expected
Friend support was correlated with mental well-being in the simpler analysis, but it did not remain a significant predictor in the full regression model. The paper suggests this may be because the study was conducted early in campus reopening, when students were still rebuilding peer relationships after years of lockdown and online learning.
This finding does not mean friendships are unimportant. Rather, it suggests that after long social disruption, peer relationships may take time to become strong mental health resources again.
5) School community mattered, especially inclusion
School community predicted mental well-being through three domains: quality of relationships, connectedness, and respect for diversity. For psychological distress, however, the key school factor was respect for diversity.
This is one of the study’s most practical findings. A school may help students feel mentally well when it offers good relationships and belonging. But for reducing distress, inclusion may be especially important. Students who feel that diversity is respected may feel safer and less psychologically burdened.
This matters deeply for LGBTQ+ students, women, and other students who may experience exclusion or discrimination.
6) National identity and public trust supported mental well-being
At the national level, identification with the country and trust in public institutions predicted higher mental well-being. This suggests that students’ mental health is shaped not only by family and school, but also by how they experience the nation.
When young people feel connected to their country and trust public institutions, they may experience stronger belonging, hope, and confidence in the future. But the study also found low levels of identification with country and trust in public institutions, which may reflect the difficult political and social climate after the pandemic.
7) Improvements in life satisfaction mattered
Students who reported greater improvement in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022 had higher mental well-being and lower psychological distress.
This shows the importance of time. Mental health after lockdown was shaped not only by current conditions, but also by whether students felt their lives had improved compared with the earlier pandemic period.
8) The model explained well-being better than distress
The full model explained 28.6% of mental well-being, but only 9.83% of psychological distress.
This means socio-ecological factors were better at explaining positive mental health than distress symptoms. In practical terms, family, school, national belonging, and life improvement may be especially useful for promoting well-being, but serious distress may also require more clinical, individual, and trauma-informed support.
Bottom line
This study shows that Filipino college students’ post-lockdown mental health was shaped by many social layers. Family support, inclusive school communities, national identity, public trust, and improved life satisfaction helped support mental well-being. Meanwhile, female and LGBTQ+ students, and those with weaker family support, lower school respect for diversity, and worsening life satisfaction, faced greater psychological distress.
The key message is simple: student mental health is not only inside the student. It is also in the family, school, society, and historical moment surrounding them.
Policy/practice recommendations
- Make family part of college mental health promotion
Schools can offer psychoeducation for families on how support, communication, and understanding affect student mental health. - Build inclusive school climates
Respect for diversity should be treated as a mental health strategy, not only a values statement. Anti-discrimination policies, LGBTQ+-affirming spaces, and inclusive teaching practices matter. - Support female and LGBTQ+ students intentionally
Mental health programs should recognize that these groups may face higher distress because of gendered expectations, discrimination, safety concerns, and exclusion. - Rebuild peer connection after lockdown
Since friendships may have been disrupted by prolonged online learning, schools can create low-pressure spaces forWhat this study is about
After two years of COVID-19 community quarantine, Filipino college students returned to campuses carrying the effects of prolonged lockdown, online learning, family confinement, social isolation, and uncertainty. This study asks: What social factors shaped students’ mental health after lockdown?
Instead of looking only at individual stress, the study used a socio-ecological approach. This means it examined mental health across several layers of students’ lives:
- the individual level, such as age, sex assigned at birth, and SOGI;
- the family, friend, and school level;
- the national level, such as national resilience and trust in public institutions; and
- the time level, measured through changes in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022.
The study also used a bidimensional mental health model, which treats mental health as two related but distinct dimensions: mental well-being and psychological distress. In simple terms, a person can have positive mental health resources while still experiencing distress. Mental health is not only the absence of symptoms. It is also the presence of coping, connection, optimism, and functioning.
What the researcher did
This was a cross-sectional online survey involving 1,204 undergraduate students aged 18–24 enrolled in higher education institutions in the National Capital Region. Data were collected from August to September 2022, during the period when Philippine campuses were reopening after prolonged remote learning.
The study measured:
- mental well-being using the Short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale;
- psychological distress using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale;
- family and friend support using communal mastery scales;
- school community through quality of relationships, connectedness, and respect for diversity;
- national resilience through identification with country, social solidarity/social justice, and trust in public institutions; and
- change in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022.
The framework in Figure 1 on page 7 shows how these layers—individual, micro/mesosystem, exo/macrosystem, and chronosystem—were connected to bidimensional mental health.
What the study found
1) Students showed moderate mental well-being but high psychological distress
The students reported moderate mental well-being, but their average psychological distress score was high enough to suggest possible severe distress. This is a key finding: after lockdown, students were not simply “okay” because campuses reopened. Many may have regained some life satisfaction while still carrying serious distress.
This supports the idea that post-lockdown recovery is uneven. Reopening schools does not automatically repair the psychological effects of long confinement and disrupted learning.
2) Female and LGBTQ+ students had poorer mental health outcomes
Female students reported higher psychological distress than male students. LGBTQ+ students also reported lower mental well-being and higher psychological distress compared with cisheterosexual students.
This suggests that student mental health support should not be one-size-fits-all. Gender and sexuality matter because students experience family life, school life, safety, discrimination, belonging, and social expectations differently.
3) Family support was one of the strongest predictors
Family support, measured as mastery-family, predicted both better mental well-being and lower psychological distress. In plain language: students who felt supported by their families tended to feel mentally better and less distressed.
This is especially important in the Philippines, where many college students continue living with or depending on family while studying. Family is not just background context. It remains a central mental health environment.
4) Friends mattered less than expected
Friend support was correlated with mental well-being in the simpler analysis, but it did not remain a significant predictor in the full regression model. The paper suggests this may be because the study was conducted early in campus reopening, when students were still rebuilding peer relationships after years of lockdown and online learning.
This finding does not mean friendships are unimportant. Rather, it suggests that after long social disruption, peer relationships may take time to become strong mental health resources again.
5) School community mattered, especially inclusion
School community predicted mental well-being through three domains: quality of relationships, connectedness, and respect for diversity. For psychological distress, however, the key school factor was respect for diversity.
This is one of the study’s most practical findings. A school may help students feel mentally well when it offers good relationships and belonging. But for reducing distress, inclusion may be especially important. Students who feel that diversity is respected may feel safer and less psychologically burdened.
This matters deeply for LGBTQ+ students, women, and other students who may experience exclusion or discrimination.
6) National identity and public trust supported mental well-being
At the national level, identification with the country and trust in public institutions predicted higher mental well-being. This suggests that students’ mental health is shaped not only by family and school, but also by how they experience the nation.
When young people feel connected to their country and trust public institutions, they may experience stronger belonging, hope, and confidence in the future. But the study also found low levels of identification with country and trust in public institutions, which may reflect the difficult political and social climate after the pandemic.
7) Improvements in life satisfaction mattered
Students who reported greater improvement in life satisfaction from 2020 to 2022 had higher mental well-being and lower psychological distress.
This shows the importance of time. Mental health after lockdown was shaped not only by current conditions, but also by whether students felt their lives had improved compared with the earlier pandemic period.
8) The model explained well-being better than distress
The full model explained 28.6% of mental well-being, but only 9.83% of psychological distress.
This means socio-ecological factors were better at explaining positive mental health than distress symptoms. In practical terms, family, school, national belonging, and life improvement may be especially useful for promoting well-being, but serious distress may also require more clinical, individual, and trauma-informed support.
Bottom line
This study shows that Filipino college students’ post-lockdown mental health was shaped by many social layers. Family support, inclusive school communities, national identity, public trust, and improved life satisfaction helped support mental well-being. Meanwhile, female and LGBTQ+ students, and those with weaker family support, lower school respect for diversity, and worsening life satisfaction, faced greater psychological distress.
The key message is simple: student mental health is not only inside the student. It is also in the family, school, society, and historical moment surrounding them.
Policy/practice recommendations
- Make family part of college mental health promotion
Schools can offer psychoeducation for families on how support, communication, and understanding affect student mental health. - Build inclusive school climates
Respect for diversity should be treated as a mental health strategy, not only a values statement. Anti-discrimination policies, LGBTQ+-affirming spaces, and inclusive teaching practices matter. - Support female and LGBTQ+ students intentionally
Mental health programs should recognize that these groups may face higher distress because of gendered expectations, discrimination, safety concerns, and exclusion. - Rebuild peer connection after lockdown
Since friendships may have been disrupted by prolonged online learning, schools can create low-pressure spaces for students to reconnect socially. - Treat public trust as part of youth well-being
The study suggests that national institutions and public governance shape students’ mental well-being. Mental health advocacy should include calls for accountable, trustworthy, and youth-responsive institutions. - Monitor both well-being and distress
Schools should not only ask whether students are distressed. They should also assess whether students feel connected, hopeful, capable, and satisfied with life.
Glossary of key terms
- Socio-ecological systems theory — A framework that explains how people’s development and health are shaped by multiple layers of environment, from family and school to society and history.
- Bidimensional mental health — The idea that mental health includes both positive well-being and psychological distress, rather than only the absence of illness.
- Mental well-being — Positive mental health, including coping, optimism, clear thinking, connection, and functioning.
- Psychological distress — Emotional suffering or symptoms such as anxiety, hopelessness, nervousness, fatigue, or depressive feelings.
- Micro/mesosystem — Immediate social worlds such as family, friends, and school, and the relationships among them.
- Exo/macrosystem — Larger social structures and cultural systems, such as government, public institutions, national identity, and social values.
- Chronosystem — The dimension of time, including life transitions and historical events such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Communal mastery — A person’s sense that they can face problems with support from important social groups, such as family or friends.
- School community — The student’s experience of relationships, belonging, connectedness, and respect for diversity in school.
- National resilience — The perceived ability of a country and its institutions to cope with crises while maintaining social cohesion and core values.
- Identification with country — A person’s sense of belonging, connection, or attachment to their nation.
- Trust in public institutions — Confidence that public systems and institutions can act effectively and fairly.
- Respect for diversity — The extent to which a school environment recognizes, accepts, and protects differences among students.
- SOGI — Sexual orientation and gender identity.
- Cisheterosexual — A person who is both cisgender and heterosexual.
- LGBTQ+ — Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other sexual and gender minority identities.
- SWEMWBS — Short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale, used to measure positive mental well-being.
- K10 — Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, used to measure non-specific psychological distress.
- Hierarchical regression — A statistical method that adds groups of predictors step by step to see how much each layer explains an outcome.
- Treat public trust as part of youth well-being
The study suggests that national institutions and public governance shape students’ mental well-being. Mental health advocacy should include calls for accountable, trustworthy, and youth-responsive institutions. - Monitor both well-being and distress
Schools should not only ask whether students are distressed. They should also assess whether students feel connected, hopeful, capable, and satisfied with life.
Glossary of key terms
- Socio-ecological systems theory — A framework that explains how people’s development and health are shaped by multiple layers of environment, from family and school to society and history.
- Bidimensional mental health — The idea that mental health includes both positive well-being and psychological distress, rather than only the absence of illness.
- Mental well-being — Positive mental health, including coping, optimism, clear thinking, connection, and functioning.
- Psychological distress — Emotional suffering or symptoms such as anxiety, hopelessness, nervousness, fatigue, or depressive feelings.
- Micro/mesosystem — Immediate social worlds such as family, friends, and school, and the relationships among them.
- Exo/macrosystem — Larger social structures and cultural systems, such as government, public institutions, national identity, and social values.
- Chronosystem — The dimension of time, including life transitions and historical events such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Communal mastery — A person’s sense that they can face problems with support from important social groups, such as family or friends.
- School community — The student’s experience of relationships, belonging, connectedness, and respect for diversity in school.
- National resilience — The perceived ability of a country and its institutions to cope with crises while maintaining social cohesion and core values.
- Identification with country — A person’s sense of belonging, connection, or attachment to their nation.
- Trust in public institutions — Confidence that public systems and institutions can act effectively and fairly.
- Respect for diversity — The extent to which a school environment recognizes, accepts, and protects differences among students.
- SOGI — Sexual orientation and gender identity.
- Cisheterosexual — A person who is both cisgender and heterosexual.
- LGBTQ+ — Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other sexual and gender minority identities.
- SWEMWBS — Short Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale, used to measure positive mental well-being.
- K10 — Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, used to measure non-specific psychological distress.
- Hierarchical regression — A statistical method that adds groups of predictors step by step to see how much each layer explains an outcome.
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